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modern india by bipan chandra: History of Modern India Bipan Chandra, 2009 History of Modern India presents an authoritative overview of the history of what was known as British India. The text is largely based on the author s research on nationalism and colonialism in India and also draws from the works of eminent historians of the period. Challenging and revising colonial and nationalist interpretations of history, this book moves away from a largely political narrative to a social, economic and religious history of modern India. It explains how conditions in India during the eighteenth century helped the British East India Company establish its rule in India. It also gives us important insights into the primary aim of colonial rule which was the economic exploitation of India through trade and investment. The topics are arranged thematically in order to showcase the various forces that went into the making of independent India. However, in the entire arrangement of themes, the chronology of the period is enmeshed innovatively with the various forces that evolved both as a cause and effect of British imperialist rule of the subcontinent. The book also provides a detailed account of the nationalist movement and introduces us to the contributions of different individuals who were behind the nationalist movement. A comprehensive textbook for students of history and interested readers, History of Modern India is essential reading for a broad based understanding of the making of modern India. |
modern india by bipan chandra: India After Independence, 1947-2000 Bipan Chandra, Aditya Mukherjee, Mridula Mukherjee, 1999 The Story Of The Forging Of Contemporary India, The World S Largest Democracy, Is A Rich And Inspiring One. This Volume, A Sequel To The Authors Best-Selling India S Struggle For Independence, Analyses The Challenges India Has Faced And The Successes It Has Achieved Over The Last Five Decades, In The Light Of Its Colonial Legacy And Century-Long Struggle For Freedom. In Doing So, It Shows How Unique The Indian Experience Is In The Third World-Combining Development With Democracy And Civil Liberties. With Great Insight And Clarity The Book Describes How Against Great Odds The Constitution Was Framed By Seeking The Widest Possible Consensus, As Also How The Nehruvian Political And Economic Agenda And Basics Of Foreign Policy Were Evolved And Developed. Essential To The Quest For Consolidation Of The Nation Was The Integration Of The Princely States, The Linguistic Reorganization Of The States, The Integration Of The Tribals Into The Mainstream And The Countering Of Regional Imbalances. Among The Other Contentious Issues Considered Here, With All Their Implications For The Present Situation, Are India S Foreign Policy, Party Politics In The Centre And The States, The Punjab Problem, The Growth Of Communalism, And Anticaste Politics And Untouchability. There Are Detailed Analyses Of The Indian Economy, Including The Reforms Since 1991, The Wide-Ranging Land Reforms And The Green Revolution. These, Along With The Objective Assessments Of Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Jayaprakash Narayan, Lal Bahadur Shastri, Rajiv Gandhi, Vishwanath Pratap Singh And Atal Behari Vajpayee Constitute A Remarkable Overview Of A Nation On The Move. Incisive, Pithy And Optimistic, India After Independence Is A Welcome Introduction To Contemporary India And Reaffirms The Strength Of Indian Democracy In The Coming Millennium. 'As An Introduction To The History Of Post-Independence India, It Is Non-Pareil.' -M V Kamath |
modern india by bipan chandra: Modern India 1885–1947 Sumit Sarkar, 1989-01-24 '...it is well written, balanced and comprehensive. It splendidly incorporates the new work of the last twenty years as no one else has and it will be the starting point for everyone doing any work, from sixth forms upwards, on modern India.' D.A.Low |
modern india by bipan chandra: Brothers Against the Raj Leonard A. Gordon, 1997 Subhas Chandra Bose and his elder brother Sarat were among the most important leaders of the Indian struggle for independence from the British and were active from the 1920s through the 1940s. Brothers Against the Raj is the definitive biography of the Boses, placing them in the context of the Indian freedom struggle and international politics of the period. Leonard A. Gordon uses materials gathered in Europe and Asia from archives, records, and 150 interviews he conducted with the brothers' political contemporaries and family members. The author makes use of hundreds of unpublished letters and other previously untapped sources as well. Brothers Against the Raj brings these two controversial leaders and a significant epoch in India's history to renewed and explosive life. Leonard A. Gordon is Professor of History at Brooklyn College, The City University of New York; Associate Director of the Southern Asian Institute, Columbia University; and Director of the Taraknath Das Foundation. Dr. Gordon has published several books and his Bengal: The Nationalist Movement (1876-1940) was awarded the Watumull Prize by the American Historical Association in 1974. |
modern india by bipan chandra: A History of Modern India Ishita Banerjee-Dube, 2015 This book provides an interpretive and comprehensive account of the history of India between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries, a crucial epoch characterized by colonialism, nationalism and the emergence of the independent Indian Union. It explores significant historiographical debates concerning the period while highlighting important new issues, especially those of gender, ecology, caste, and labour. The work combines an analysis of colonial and independent India in order to underscore ideologies, policies, and processes that shaped the colonial state and continue to mould the Indian nation. |
modern india by bipan chandra: India's Struggle for Independence Bipan Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee, Aditya Mukherjee, K N Panikkar, Sucheta Mahajan, 2016-08-09 India’s struggle for Independence by Bipin Chandra is your go to book for an in-depth and detailed overview on Indian independence movement . Indian freedom struggle is one of the most important parts of its history. A lot has been written and said about it, but there still remains a gap. Rarely do we get to hear accounts of the independence from the entire country and not just one region at one place. This book fits in perfectly in this gap and also provides a narration on the impact this movement had on the people. Bipin Chandra’s book is a well-documented history of India's freedom struggle against the British rule. It is one of the most accurate books which have been painstakingly written after thorough research based on legal and valid verbal and written sources. It maps the first war of independence that started with Mangal Pandey’s mutiny and witnessed the gallant effort of Sri Rani Laxmi Bai. Many of the pages of this book are dedicated to Mahatma Gandhi’s non-cooperation and the civil disobedience movements. It contains detailed description of Subash Chandra Bose’s weapon heavy tactics and his charisma. This book includes all the independence movements and fights, irrespective of their size and impact, covering India in its entirety. Although these movements varied in means and ideas, but they shared a common goal of independence. This book contains oral and written narratives from different parts of the country, making this book historically rich and diverse. The book captures the evolution of Indian independence struggle in full detail and leaves no chapter of this story untouched. This book is a good read for the students of Indian modern history and especially for students who are preparing for UPSC examination and have taken History as their subject. |
modern india by bipan chandra: India Since Independence Bipan Chandra, 2008-02-11 A thorough and incisive introduction to contemporary India The story of the forging of India, the world's largest democracy, is a rich and inspiring one. This volume, a sequel to the best-selling India's Struggle for Independence, analyses the challenges India has faced and the successes it has achieved, in the light of its colonial legacy and century-long struggle for freedom. The book describes how the Constitution was framed, as also how the Nehruvian political and economic agenda and basics of foreign policy were evolved and developed. It dwells on the consolidation of the nation, examining contentious issues like party politics in the Centre and the states, the Punjab problem, and anti-caste politics and untouchability. This revised edition offers a scathing analysis of the growth of communalism in India and the use of state power in furthering its cause. It also documents the fall of the National Democratic Alliance in the 2004 General Elections, the United Progressive Alliance's subsequent rise to power and the Indo-US Nuclear Deal that served to unravel the political consensus at the centre. Apart from detailed analyses of Indian economic reforms since 1991 and wide-ranging land reforms and the Green Revolution, this new edition includes an overview of the Indian economy in the new millennium. These, along with objective assessments of Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Jayaprakash Narayan, Lal Bahadur Shastri, Rajiv Gandhi, Vishwanath Pratap Singh, Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh, constitute a remarkable overview of a nation on the move. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Ideology and Politics in Modern India Bipan Chandra, 2005 |
modern india by bipan chandra: Composite Culture in a Multicultural Society Bipan Chandra, Sucheta Mahajan, 2007 This insightful volume, featuring contributions by luminaries from the fields of political theory and philosophy; ancient, medieval and modern history; sociology, anthropology and the creative arts, brings to the fore the theoretical and practical remifications of multiculturalism. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India Bipan Chandra, 1984 |
modern india by bipan chandra: The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India Bipan Chandra, 2010 |
modern india by bipan chandra: From Plassey to Partition Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa, 2004 From Plassey to Partition is an eminently readable account of the emergence of India as a nation. It covers about two hundred years of political and socio-economic turbulence. Of particular interest to the contemporary reader will be sections such as Early Nationalism: Discontent and Dissension , Many Voices of a Nation and Freedom with Partition . On the one hand, it converses with students of Indian history and on the other, it engages general and curious readers. Few books on this crucial period of history have captured the rhythms of India s polyphonic nationalism as From Plassey to Partition. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Essays on Colonialism Bipan Chandra, 1999 This book is a collection of eight essays that bring together Bipan Chandra s finest writings on colonialism and nationalism in India, spanning two decades. The author in these essays puts forth the core elements of colonialism: the complex integration of the colony with the world capitalist system in a subordinate position; a distinct historical stage which modernised colonial societies without initiating a process of independent economic development; a system which while it continued to subordinate the colonial economy, displayed three distinct phases each characterised by a unique pattern of domination and surplus extraction; a structure where the colonial state was an instrument for subordinating all the social and economic classes of the colony, while it served the interests of the metropolitan bourgeoisie. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Communalism Bipan Chandra, 2008 With special reference to India. |
modern india by bipan chandra: The Puffin History of India for Children, 3000 BC - AD 1947 Roshen Dalal, 2002 In An Informal, Engaging Style, The Puffin History Of India For Children 3000 Bc To Ad 1947 Tells The Fascinating Story Of Our Land From The Indus Valley Civilization To Independence. Tracing The Social, Political, Cultural And Economic Development Of India, The Book Focuses On The High Points Of Indian History: The Vedic Age, The Mauryan Empire, The Gupta Period, The Battle Of Panipat, The Conquests Of Alauddin Khilji, Who Had The Largest Empire Since Ashoka, The Bahmani And Vijayanagara Kingdoms And Their Conflicts, The Rule Of Akbar, Shahjahan And Aurangzeb And The Building Of The Taj Mahal, The British Conquest, The 1857 Revolt, The Nationalist Movement And, Finally, The Triumph Of Independence. The Contribution Of The Important Personalities Who Shaped This History, From Mahavira, Buddha, Alexander, Ashoka, Harsha And Babur To Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh, Mahatma Gandhi, Subhash Chandra Bose And Jawaharlal Nehru, Is Vividly Described In Fascinating Detail. Every Now And Then The Narrative Pauses To Dwell On The Social And Cultural Life Of The People, And The Political, Economic And Religious Changes That Have Been Wrought Over Centuries, Providing A Comprehensive Picture Of What Life Was Like In India At Various Points Of Time. The Colourful Description Of People, Events And Cultures, Complemented By A Host Of Illustrations And Maps, Brings History Dramatically To Life For The Reader. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Communalism and the Writing of Indian History Romila Thapar, Harbans Mukhia, Bipan Chandra, 1969 Revised version of papers presented at a seminar organised by All India Radio in October 1968. |
modern india by bipan chandra: A Brief History of Modern India Rajiv Ahir, 2018 |
modern india by bipan chandra: Towards Freedom Bipan Chandra, Visalakshi Menon, Salil Misra, Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, 2016 The Towards Freedom volumes, each edited by a distinguished scholar, bring together historical materials relating to the period 1937-47 from a wide variety of sources - official records, private and organizational papers, newspapers, and other contemporary publications available within the country. The series presents documents relating to the activities, attitudes, and ideas of diverse classes and sections of Indian society, all of which contributed to the attainment of independence with partition. In two parts, this volume covers 1942, the year of the largest and powerful mass protest - the Quit India movement. This first part of the volume brings together primary sources and archival documents for the period January 1942 to August 1942 and explores the emergence of the Quit India movement. The documents in Part I cover the entire period from the Bardoli Congress to Allahabad Congress and the beginning of the preparation for the Quit India movement. It includes all the significant milestones which require critical appraisal including the Cripps Mission, Student Politics, Communists, Kisan Sabha movements, Congress Socialist Party, Women and Dalit organizations and protests, the Forward Bloc and the Radical Democratic Party, and the communal problem. Bringing together documents on such a diverse range of dimensions of the mass protest movements, this volume tackles one of the most significant struggles against the colonial government which paved the way for independence. This volume on 1942 maps the events of the most crucial period of the independence of India. |
modern india by bipan chandra: A Republic in the Making Gyanesh Kudaisya, 2017 Présentation de l'éditeur : This book takes a critical look at India in the momentous 1950s. It looks at the colossal challenges which India faced after Independence. It considers the key ideas, paths, and trajectories which were articulated in these years |
modern india by bipan chandra: The Soul of India Bipin Chandra Pal, 1911 |
modern india by bipan chandra: The Indian Ideology Perry Anderson, 2021-07-13 The historiography of modern India is largely a pageant of presumed virtues: harmonious territorial unity, religious impartiality, the miraculous survival of electoral norms in the world’s most populous democracy. Even critics of Indian society still underwrite such claims. But how well does the “Idea of India” correspond to the realities of the Union? In an iconoclastic intervention, Marxist historian Perry Anderson provides an unforgettable reading of the Subcontinent’s passage through Independence and the catastrophe of Partition, the idiosyncratic and corrosive vanities of Gandhi and Nehru, and the close interrelationship of Indian democracy and caste inequality. The Indian Ideology caused uproar on first publication in 2012, not least for breaking with euphemisms for Delhi’s occupation of Kashmir. This new, expanded edition includes the author’s reply to his critics, an interview with the Indian weekly Outlook, and a postscript on India under the rule of Narendra Modi. |
modern india by bipan chandra: India's Ancient Past Ram Sharan Sharma, 2007 This insightful volume by one of the best-known historians of early India is a comprehensive yet accessible account of ancient Indian history coveirng a wide spectrum. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Essays on Indian Nationalism Bipan Chandra, 1999-01-01 In this collection of essays Professor Bipan Chandra, the eminent historian of Modern India. Puts together some of his ideas on various aspects of the Indain Naitonal Movement. The author brings to bear on the subject his deep understanding based on decades of research, throwing light on what made possible this biggest mass movement of modern times, what was its legacy and what can be learnt form it for the future. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Technology in Medieval India C. 650-1750 Irfan Habib, 2016 This book covers the whole range of technology, from the tools and skills of ordinary men and women to the instruments of astronomers and the equipage and weaponry of war. Changes in technology are carefully traced and their consequences examined. Larger questions, such as those of constraints on technological development and the role of the social and economic environment, are also addressed. This volume, in line with the others of A People's History of India, gives several extracts from texts, containing significant information about specific aspects of pre-modern technology. There are special notes on technical terms, sources of the history of technology, the problem of invention versus diffusion, and the development of medieval technology outside India. It includes illustrations taken from medieval sculpture, painting and book-illustrations. The volume is addressed to the general reader as well as the student, who would like to read about something on which conventional textbooks have little to offer. A special effort is made to keep the style non-technical without loss of accuracy. It is hoped that the theme is sufficiently interesting not only for the historian but for any citizen wanting to know what common people, men and women, did with their hands and tools in earlier times. |
modern india by bipan chandra: An Advanced History of India Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, 1973 |
modern india by bipan chandra: A Nation in Making Sir Surendranath Banerjea, 1927 |
modern india by bipan chandra: India Unbound Gurcharan Das, 2001-06-27 India today is a vibrant free-market democracy, a nation well on its way to overcoming decades of widespread poverty. The nation’s rise is one of the great international stories of the late twentieth century, and in India Unbound the acclaimed columnist Gurcharan Das offers a sweeping economic history of India from independence to the new millennium. Das shows how India’s policies after 1947 condemned the nation to a hobbled economy until 1991, when the government instituted sweeping reforms that paved the way for extraordinary growth. Das traces these developments and tells the stories of the major players from Nehru through today. As the former CEO of Proctor & Gamble India, Das offers a unique insider’s perspective and he deftly interweaves memoir with history, creating a book that is at once vigorously analytical and vividly written. Impassioned, erudite, and eminently readable, India Unbound is a must for anyone interested in the global economy and its future. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Polity Tricks Vinay Bansal, 2019-09-22 This book is the best book for tricks. These Tricks will help you to understand, learn and remember Indian Polity and Constitution. Mnemonics used in this book are very unique. This book will help to cover social science, Political Science, Public administration and current affairs. This e book will be useful for UPSC, PPSC, HPSC, state competitive examinations, SSC, Banking, Clerical and all other government examinations. This book is a sure short formula for success with its tips and tricks. It containsSalient features of the ConstitutionFundamental rightsFundamental dutiesDirective principles of state policyThe Preamble |
modern india by bipan chandra: Freedom Struggle Bipan Chandra, Amales Tripathi, Barun De, 1993 |
modern india by bipan chandra: Objective General Knowledge Geography KUMAR PRASOON, 2017-06-03 This General Knowledge book on Geography contains multiple choice questions (MCQs) for competitive examinations. It contains 1000 plus multiple choice questions. Answer key has been provided. Every attempt has been made to ensure that the questions included are topical, and relevant to contemporary trend of various competitive and entrance exams and mind-set of question paper setters.This book is useful for all exams held by UPSC such as Civil Services, CDS, NDA, Railways, IBPS (Banking Services), SSC & other exams organized by State Public Service Commissions and other examining bodies. Features: 1000+ MCQs Answer keys Previous Years Questions #v&spublishers |
modern india by bipan chandra: Independence and Partition Sucheta Mahajan, 2000 |
modern india by bipan chandra: History of the Freedom Movement in India , 2022 |
modern india by bipan chandra: Sage Series in Modern Indian History (STOM). , |
modern india by bipan chandra: Modernizing Democracy Terry F. Buss, F. Stevens Redburn, Kristina Guo, 2006 Intended for public administration professionals, scholars, and students interested in citizen participation. This work brings together analyses of innovative practices, from hands-on community learning and focus groups to high-tech information systems and decision support technologies. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Nehru's India (The Most Definitive Book on Jawaharlal Nehru) Aditya Mukherjee, 2024-11-22 Sovereignty, democracy, secularism, pro-poor orientation and modern scientific outlook, core values of the India’s Independence Movement have in short been described as ‘the Idea of India’. Jawaharlal Nehru not only fought for these values during the freedom struggle but also played a pivotal role to implement them in the newborn nation after independence. His life, philosophy and works throw light on his vision for India: its civilizational past, roadmap for the post-independent nation and possibilities for a future. With its focus on Nehru’s understanding of history and of India’s cultural past, the book opens a window to his deep understanding of communalism and commitment to secularism. His absolute faith in a democratic society and invaluable contribution to its nurturing in Indian soil, his efforts in building an independent and egalitarian economy, and a society suffused with scientific temper, provides us multiple insights into the life and work of one of the greatest figures of the twentieth century. Six decades after his demise, do Nehru’s principles which reflected the values of India’s independence movement still hold water? Candid, argumentative and thought-provoking, Nehru’s India is a brilliant work on the man who made sincere efforts to discover, champion and defend the idea of India. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Science and Society in Modern India Deepak Kumar, 2023-08-24 The book delineates the role and place of the Western scientific discourse which occupied an important place in the colonization of India. During the colonial period, science became one of the foundations of Indian modernity and the nation-state. Gradually, the educated Indians sought to locate modern scientific ideas and principles within Indian culture and adopted those for the economic regeneration of the country. The discursive terrain of the history of science, especially in the context of a society with a very long and complex past, is bound to be replete with numerous debates on its nature and evolution, its changing contours, its complex civilizational journey, and finally, the enormous impact it has on our own life and time. The book offers a useful introduction to science, society, and government interface in the Indian context. |
modern india by bipan chandra: The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India Christophe Jaffrelot, 1996 Using techniques similar to those of nationalist groups in other nations, Jaffrelot contends, the Hindu movement polarizes Indian society by stigmatizing minorities - chiefly Muslims and Christians - and by promoting a sectarian Hindu identity. |
modern india by bipan chandra: Economic History of Modern India S.N. Pandey, The studies on economic history of modern India had a very late beginning. During the early stage of historiography, a few historians recognized the connection between political and economic history remained a chapter on economic conditions only. Causes and effects of economy were never and analyzed. This book attempts to fill that gap. Examining the characteristic of a colonial economy, the book discusses the process of colonizing Indian economy, with speared focus on monopolistic trade tactics, banning of Indian products in Britain, transformation of trade after industrial revolution and entry of foreign enterprises in India. It also extend an elaborate discussion on land settlement, revenue policies, commercialization of agriculture, decline of handicrafts, state of irrigation, development of transport and communication and currency. Finally, it evaluates economic impact of British rule and addresses the issue of economic drain from India. |
modern india by bipan chandra: India's Agony Over Religion Gerald James Larson, 1995-01-01 Presents the contemporary religious crisis in India, providing historical perspective and focusing on the crises in Punjab, Kashmir, and Ayodhya. |
Modern Optical
At Modern Optical, we believe all families deserve fashionable, affordable eyewear. Founded in 1974 by my father, Yale Weissman, Modern remains family-owned and operated as well as a …
MODERN Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of MODERN is of, relating to, or characteristic of the present or the immediate past : contemporary. How to use modern in a sentence.
MODERN | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
MODERN definition: 1. designed and made using the most recent ideas and methods: 2. of the present or recent times…. Learn more.
Modern - Wikipedia
Modernity, a loosely defined concept delineating a number of societal, economic and ideological features that contrast with "pre-modern" times or societies Late modernity Art
Modern - definition of modern by The Free Dictionary
Characteristic or expressive of recent times or the present; contemporary or up-to-date: a modern lifestyle; a modern way of thinking. 2. a. Of or relating to a recently developed or advanced …
MODERN definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary
modern is applied to those things that exist in the present age, esp. in contrast to those of a former age or an age long past; hence the word sometimes has the connotation of up-to-date …
Modern Muse Salon | Collierville TN - Facebook
Modern Muse Salon, Collierville, TN. 434 likes · 31 talking about this · 99 were here. Luxury hair salon located in Collierville at the corner of Poplar & Houston Levee!
What does modern mean? - Definitions.net
Modern typically refers to the present or recent times as opposed to the past. It commonly relates to developments or characteristics regarded as representative of contemporary life, or the …
MODERN Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com
Modern means relating to the present time, as in modern life. It also means up-to-date and not old, as in modern technology. Apart from these general senses, modern is often used in a …
Modern Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Modern definition: Of, relating to, or being a living language or group of languages.
Modern Optical
At Modern Optical, we believe all families deserve fashionable, affordable eyewear. Founded in 1974 by my father, Yale Weissman, Modern remains family-owned and operated as well as a …
MODERN Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of MODERN is of, relating to, or characteristic of the present or the immediate past : contemporary. How to use modern in a sentence.
MODERN | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
MODERN definition: 1. designed and made using the most recent ideas and methods: 2. of the present or recent times…. Learn more.
Modern - Wikipedia
Modernity, a loosely defined concept delineating a number of societal, economic and ideological features that contrast with "pre-modern" times or societies Late modernity Art
Modern - definition of modern by The Free Dictionary
Characteristic or expressive of recent times or the present; contemporary or up-to-date: a modern lifestyle; a modern way of thinking. 2. a. Of or relating to a recently developed or advanced …
MODERN definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary
modern is applied to those things that exist in the present age, esp. in contrast to those of a former age or an age long past; hence the word sometimes has the connotation of up-to-date …
Modern Muse Salon | Collierville TN - Facebook
Modern Muse Salon, Collierville, TN. 434 likes · 31 talking about this · 99 were here. Luxury hair salon located in Collierville at the corner of Poplar & Houston Levee!
What does modern mean? - Definitions.net
Modern typically refers to the present or recent times as opposed to the past. It commonly relates to developments or characteristics regarded as representative of contemporary life, or the …
MODERN Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com
Modern means relating to the present time, as in modern life. It also means up-to-date and not old, as in modern technology. Apart from these general senses, modern is often used in a …
Modern Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Modern definition: Of, relating to, or being a living language or group of languages.